The words for the words.

Also called nombre · n · substantive

How it works

Every Spanish noun has a grammatical gender, masculine or feminine, and a number, singular or plural. The articles, adjectives and determiners around it take the same gender and number. A noun can be the subject of a sentence, an object, or follow a preposition.

Spanish and English

English nouns have no gender, so the article is the part learners forget. Learn each noun with its article: el problema, la mano, el día.

• La casa de mi abuela es chica.

  My grandmother’s house is small.

• Tengo una pregunta.

  I have a question.

Also called sustantivo propio · prop · name

How it works

A proper noun identifies rather than describes, so it normally takes no article and no plural. It is written with a capital letter. Some place names carry a fixed article that is part of the name, such as La Plata or El Salvador.

Spanish and English

Spanish capitalises far fewer words than English. Days, months, languages and nationalities are common nouns or adjectives and stay lower case: lunes, septiembre, inglés, argentino.

Regional

In Argentina and much of Latin America, speakers often put an article before a first name in casual speech: la Juli, el Nico. It sounds familiar, not rude, but it is not used in formal writing.

• Lucía vive en Mendoza.

  Lucía lives in Mendoza.

• Nos vemos el lunes.

  See you on Monday.

  lunes is a common noun, so it is lower case.

Also called sustantivo común

How it works

Common nouns are the ordinary nouns of the language. They take articles and determiners, have gender and number, and can be counted or measured. Most of the nouns you learn are common nouns.

• Quiero comprar un libro y dos cuadernos.

  I want to buy a book and two notebooks.

Also called countable noun · uncountable noun · mass noun · count noun · sustantivo no contable · nombre contable · nombre no contable · incontable

How it works

A countable noun can take a number and a plural: dos manzanas. An uncountable noun is measured instead of counted, so it goes with quantifiers like mucho, poco or un poco de, and usually stays singular: mucha plata, un poco de leche. Many nouns can be used both ways, with a change of meaning: café (the drink) and dos cafés (two cups).

Spanish and English

The two languages do not always agree on which nouns count. Spanish counts muebles, consejos and noticias, where English says furniture, advice and news: Me dio dos consejos (He gave me two pieces of advice).

• Compré tres manzanas y un poco de arroz.

  I bought three apples and a bit of rice.

• Tengo una buena noticia.

  I have some good news.

Also called v

How it works

A Spanish verb changes its ending to show who does the action (person and number), when it happens (tense), how the speaker presents it (mood) and whether it is seen as finished or ongoing (aspect). Verbs are listed in the dictionary by their infinitive, which ends in -ar, -er or -ir. The verb is the only word a Spanish sentence cannot do without: Llueve is a full sentence.

Spanish and English

Because the ending already says who is acting, Spanish usually drops the subject pronoun: Hablo inglés, not Yo hablo inglés, unless you want to stress the yo.

• Mañana trabajo desde casa.

  Tomorrow I’m working from home.

• ¿Qué hacés el finde?

  What are you doing at the weekend?

  With tú: ¿Qué haces el finde?

Also called adj

How it works

A Spanish adjective agrees with its noun in gender and number: un auto rojo, unas casas rojas. Adjectives ending in -o have four forms; those ending in -e or a consonant usually have only a singular and a plural: verde, verdes; fácil, fáciles. They can sit next to the noun or after a verb like ser, estar or parecer.

Spanish and English

Most descriptive adjectives follow the noun in Spanish: una película larga, not una larga película. Putting one first is possible, but it changes the tone or even the meaning.

• Es una ciudad muy linda.

  It’s a really nice city.

• Los chicos están cansados.

  The kids are tired.

Also called adv · adverbial

How it works

Adverbs never change form: they have no gender and no plural. Some are single words (bien, ya, acá, muy); many others are made by adding -mente to the feminine form of an adjective: rápida, rápidamente. They answer questions such as ¿cómo?, ¿cuándo?, ¿dónde? and ¿cuánto?

Spanish and English

A common mistake is making an adverb agree like an adjective: Ellas hablan muy bien, never muy bienas. Medio is the tricky one: in careful speech it stays invariable before an adjective (Está medio cansada), although medio cansada and media cansada both occur in speech.

• Hablás muy bien castellano.

  You speak Spanish very well.

  With tú: Hablas muy bien castellano.

• Ya llegamos.

  We’re here now.

Also called pron

How it works

Spanish has several families of pronouns: personal (yo, vos, él), object (me, lo, le), reflexive (se), possessive (el mío), demonstrative (esto), relative (que), interrogative (qué) and indefinite (alguien). Personal and object pronouns change form for person, number and sometimes gender and case.

Spanish and English

Spanish uses subject pronouns much less than English, but object pronouns much more, often attached to a verb: Decímelo (Tell me it). Spanish also has no separate word for it as a subject: Es tarde, not Ello es tarde.

• Lo vi ayer.

  I saw him yesterday.

• ¿Quién viene?

  Who’s coming?

Also called art · the · a · an

How it works

Spanish has a definite article (el, la, los, las) and an indefinite article (un, una, unos, unas). Both agree with the noun in gender and number, which makes the article the quickest clue to a noun’s gender. There is also a neuter lo, used before adjectives to make an idea: lo bueno (the good thing).

Spanish and English

Spanish uses the definite article in places where English uses none: for things in general (Me gusta el café), with days (el lunes), with titles (el doctor Pérez) and with body parts and clothes (Me duele la cabeza). It drops the indefinite article with professions after ser: Soy ingeniero.

• El café de acá es muy bueno.

  The coffee here is very good.

• Soy profesora.

  I’m a teacher.

  No article before the profession.

Also called artículo definido · the · el · la · los · las

How it works

The definite article marks a noun as known: one already mentioned, unique, or obvious from the situation. It also marks nouns used in a general sense: Los perros son leales (Dogs are loyal). With a and de it contracts: al, del.

Spanish and English

English drops the in general statements and with abstract nouns, but Spanish keeps it: La vida es corta (Life is short), Odio el tráfico (I hate traffic). Spanish uses it with body parts where English uses a possessive: Me lavé las manos (I washed my hands).

• Me encanta la música brasileña.

  I love Brazilian music.

• Me duele la cabeza.

  My head hurts.

Also called artículo indefinido · a · an · un · una · unos · unas

How it works

The indefinite article presents something the listener does not yet know about. In the plural, unos and unas mean some or about: unos amigos, unos veinte minutos. Un and una are also the number one, so un café can mean a coffee or one coffee.

Spanish and English

Spanish leaves out the indefinite article where English needs it: after ser with a profession, nationality or religion (Es médica), and with otro, cierto, medio and qué in exclamations: otro día (another day), ¡Qué día! (What a day).

• Tengo una idea.

  I have an idea.

• Llegamos en unos diez minutos.

  We’ll be there in about ten minutes.

Also called determinativo · adjetivo determinativo

How it works

Determiners introduce a noun and limit its reference. The group includes articles, demonstratives, possessives, quantifiers, numerals and the interrogatives and exclamatives qué and cuánto. Most agree with the noun in gender and number: esta mesa, estos libros.

Spanish and English

Older grammars and many textbooks call these adjetivos determinativos. The RAE now treats them as a separate class because they locate or count the noun rather than describe it.

• Mis amigos viven en esa casa.

  My friends live in that house.

• Compré algunas cosas.

  I bought a few things.

Also called this · that · este · ese · aquel · esto · eso

How it works

Spanish has three degrees of distance where English has two. Este (this) is near the speaker, ese (that) is near the listener or at a middle distance, and aquel (that over there) is far from both, in space or in time. The neuter forms esto, eso and aquello refer to an idea or an unidentified thing and never go before a noun.

Spanish and English

In everyday Latin American speech ese covers most of what English that does; aquel is heard more for the distant past (en aquella época). Eso is the natural way to say that when referring to what someone just said: Eso es verdad.

• ¿Me pasás ese vaso?

  Can you pass me that glass?

  With tú: ¿Me pasas ese vaso?

• Esto no me gusta nada.

  I don’t like this at all.

Also called possessive adjective · possessive pronoun · mi · tu · su · mío · tuyo · suyo

How it works

Short possessives go before the noun and agree with the thing owned, not the owner: mis libros, nuestra casa. Long possessives go after the noun or stand alone: un amigo mío (a friend of mine), el tuyo (yours). Su and suyo are ambiguous: they can mean his, her, its, their or your (usted, ustedes).

Spanish and English

English possessives agree with the owner (his, her); Spanish ones agree with the thing: sus hijos means his children, her children or their children. When su is unclear, Spanish uses de él, de ella or de ustedes instead.

Regional

With vos, the possessive is tu and tuyo, the same as with tú: ¿Es tu auto? There is no separate vos possessive.

• Nuestros vecinos son muy amables.

  Our neighbours are very friendly.

• Esta campera no es mía, es tuya.

  This jacket isn’t mine, it’s yours.

Also called much · many · some · every · mucho · poco · todo · algún · ningún · bastante

How it works

Quantifiers express amount or degree without an exact number. Most can go before a noun and then agree with it (muchas personas, poco tiempo); the same words can often stand alone as pronouns or modify a verb as adverbs (Comí mucho). Algún and ningún shorten before a masculine singular noun.

Spanish and English

Spanish uses one word, mucho, for both much and many: mucha agua, muchos libros. Todo needs the article where English does not: todos los días (every day), todo el tiempo (all the time).

• Hay mucha gente en el centro.

  There are a lot of people downtown.

• No tengo ningún problema.

  I don’t have any problem at all.

Also called number · cardinal number · ordinal number · cardinal · ordinal · num · número

How it works

Cardinal numbers are invariable except uno, which agrees and shortens to un before a masculine noun (un libro, una mesa), and the hundreds from doscientos, which agree (doscientas personas). Ordinals behave like adjectives and agree with the noun: la segunda vez. Primero and tercero shorten to primer and tercer before a masculine singular noun.

Spanish and English

Beyond décimo (tenth), everyday Spanish usually swaps ordinals for cardinals: el piso quince, el siglo veintiuno. Dates also use cardinals, except that el primero is common for the first of the month.

• Vivo en el tercer piso.

  I live on the third floor.

• Son veintiún años.

  That’s twenty-one years.

Also called prep · a · de · en · con · por · para · desde · hasta

How it works

Prepositions express relations of place, time, direction, cause, purpose and possession. They never change form, and the word after them is a noun, a pronoun (mí, vos) or an infinitive, never a conjugated verb. Many verbs require a particular preposition: pensar en, depender de, soñar con.

Spanish and English

Prepositions rarely map one to one between English and Spanish. En covers both in and on (en la mesa); a marks direction and the personal a before people (Veo a Laura); and English uses a gerund after a preposition where Spanish uses the infinitive: antes de salir (before leaving).

• Voy a la oficina en colectivo.

  I go to the office by bus.

• Estoy pensando en vos.

  I’m thinking about you.

  With tú: Estoy pensando en ti.

Also called conj · coordinating conjunction · subordinating conjunction · conjunción coordinante · conjunción subordinante · y · o · pero · porque · que

How it works

Coordinating conjunctions link elements of the same rank: pan y manteca, ¿té o café? Subordinating conjunctions introduce a clause that works inside a larger sentence, such as que in Creo que viene. Some conjunctions require the subjunctive in the clause they introduce: para que, antes de que, a menos que.

Spanish and English

Y becomes e before a word starting with an i sound (padres e hijos), and o becomes u before an o sound (siete u ocho). After a negative, but is sino, not pero: No es caro, sino barato.

• Quiero ir, pero no tengo tiempo.

  I want to go, but I don’t have time.

• Te llamo cuando llegue.

  I’ll call you when I get there.

Also called interj · exclamation

How it works

An interjection works as a complete utterance and is not part of the sentence structure around it. It expresses surprise, pain, agreement, warning or greeting. In writing it usually sits between exclamation marks: ¡Uy!

Spanish and English

Many Spanish interjections are ordinary words used as reactions, so their meaning drifts: ojo (eye) means watch out, and vamos can mean come on as well as let’s go.

Regional

Dale is the Rioplatense all-purpose okay or go ahead, and che is used to get someone’s attention. Both are heard well beyond Argentina and Uruguay but are strongly associated with them.

• —¿Nos vemos a las ocho? —Dale.

  “Shall we meet at eight?” “Sure.”

• ¡Ojo! El piso está mojado.

  Careful, the floor is wet.

Also called al · del

How it works

Whenever a or de is followed by the masculine singular article el, the two words merge: Voy al cine, Vengo del trabajo. No other contractions are standard in writing. The merger does not happen with the pronoun él or when El is part of a proper name: de él, a El Salvador.

Spanish and English

Unlike English contractions such as don’t, these are not informal or optional: a el cine is simply wrong. And there is no contraction with la, los or las: a la playa, de los chicos.

• Vamos al parque.

  Let’s go to the park.

• Salgo del trabajo a las seis.

  I leave work at six.

Also called base form · dictionary form · -ar -er -ir

How it works

The infinitive names the action without saying who does it or when. Its ending sorts the verb into one of three conjugation groups: hablar, comer, vivir. It also works like a noun, so it can be the subject of a sentence or follow a preposition.

Spanish and English

English uses an -ing form where Spanish uses the infinitive: after a preposition (antes de salir, before leaving) and as a subject (fumar es malo, smoking is bad). There is no separate “to”: hablar is both “speak” and “to speak”.

• Me gusta caminar por el barrio.

  I like walking around the neighbourhood.

• Antes de salir, cerrá la ventana.

  Before leaving, close the window.

  With tú: cierra.

Also called -ando -iendo · present participle · -ing form

How it works

The gerundio shows an action in progress or the way something is done. It never changes for person, gender or number. It most often appears with estar to form the progressive (estoy leyendo) and with verbs like seguir, llevar or ir.

Spanish and English

Despite the name, it is not an English gerund. It cannot act as a noun, so “swimming is fun” is nadar es divertido, not nadando. Spanish also uses the progressive less than English: for plans it uses the present or ir a.

• Estoy trabajando desde casa.

  I’m working from home.

• Aprendí español escuchando podcasts.

  I learned Spanish by listening to podcasts.

Also called participle · -ado -ido

How it works

After haber it forms the compound tenses and does not change: he comido, habíamos comido. Used as an adjective, with ser in the passive, or with estar to describe a resulting state, it agrees with the noun in gender and number: la puerta está cerrada.

Spanish and English

English uses the same form in both roles, but Spanish only makes it agree when it describes something. After haber it always stays in the masculine singular: las he visto, not las he vistas.

• Todavía no he comido.

  I haven’t eaten yet.

• Las tiendas están cerradas los domingos.

  The shops are closed on Sundays.

Also called root · radical · lexema · verb stem

How it works

Remove -ar, -er or -ir from the infinitive and what remains is the stem: habl-, com-, viv-. Endings are added to it to show person, number, tense and mood. In irregular and stem-changing verbs the stem itself changes in some forms.

Spanish and English

English verbs barely change, so the stem is easy to overlook. In Spanish, finding the stem is the first step to conjugating any verb.

• Habl-ar → habl-o, habl-ás, habl-amos.

  To speak → I speak, you speak, we speak.

  With tú: hablas.

Also called verb ending · inflection · inflectional ending

How it works

One ending often carries several pieces of information at once. In hablamos, -amos says first person, plural, present, indicative. Because the ending already identifies the subject, Spanish usually drops the subject pronoun.

Spanish and English

English needs the pronoun to know who is speaking (I speak, we speak). Spanish puts that information in the ending, so listen closely to the last syllables.

• Comemos a las nueve.

  We eat at nine.

• ¿Vivís cerca?

  Do you live nearby?

  With tú: vives.

Also called verb form · forma verbal · conjugate · conjugar

How it works

To conjugate is to choose the right ending for who acts, when, and how the speaker presents it. The word also names the three groups verbs fall into by their infinitive: first (-ar), second (-er) and third (-ir). Choosing the wrong person or group is what a correction for verb form points to.

Spanish and English

An English verb has about five forms; a Spanish verb has dozens. Most mistakes are small: the right tense with the wrong person, or an -er ending on an -ir verb.

• Nosotros vivimos en Rosario.

  We live in Rosario.

  Not vivemos: vivir is a third-conjugation (-ir) verb.

• Vos sabés mucho de fútbol.

  You know a lot about football.

  With tú: sabes.

Also called regular

How it works

Once you know one model verb for each group (hablar, comer, vivir), you can conjugate every regular verb in that group. Most Spanish verbs are regular, and nearly all new verbs are regular -ar verbs: chatear, googlear.

Spanish and English

Spelling changes that keep the sound, like buscar → busqué or llegar → llegué, do not make a verb irregular.

• Trabajo, trabajás, trabajan.

  I work, you work, they work.

  With tú: trabajas.

Also called irregular

How it works

Irregularity can be small, like a changed first person (tengo, hago, salgo), or complete, like ser and ir. The most common verbs are the most irregular, because frequent use wears forms down. Irregular forms tend to come in families: tener, poner and venir share the same patterns.

Spanish and English

Learn irregular verbs as patterns rather than one by one: the -go first person, the stem change, and the irregular preterite stems (tuv-, hic-, pud-).

• Tengo que irme; ayer no pude.

  I have to go; I couldn’t yesterday.

• ¿Qué hiciste el finde?

  What did you do at the weekend?

Also called boot verb · shoe verb · diphthongizing verb · e→ie · o→ue · e→i

How it works

The change happens only when the stress falls on the stem, so querer gives quiero but queremos. In the present that means every form except nosotros, vos and vosotros, which are stressed on the ending. The same verbs usually change in the present subjunctive as well.

Spanish and English

Many learners apply the change everywhere. Keep the infinitive vowel wherever the ending takes the stress.

Regional

Voseo forms never change the stem, which makes them easier: vos querés, podés, pedís, next to tú quieres, puedes, pides.

• Yo quiero ir, pero ¿vos querés?

  I want to go, but do you?

  With tú: quieres.

• Puedo llegar a las ocho.

  I can get there at eight.

Also called person · first person · second person · third person · primera persona

How it works

Spanish has three persons in the singular and three in the plural, and each has its own verb ending. Usted and ustedes refer to the listener, but they take third-person forms: usted tiene, ustedes tienen.

Spanish and English

Because usted uses third-person verbs, “you have” can be tenés, tienes, tiene or tienen, depending on who you address and how.

Regional

In Latin America the plural “you” is always ustedes, with the third-person plural verb; vosotros is used in most of Spain.

• Tenés razón. / Usted tiene razón.

  You’re right (informal / formal).

  With tú: tienes.

Also called tense · tiempo

How it works

Each tense combines a point in time with a way of viewing the action. Spanish has more past forms than English and chooses between them by aspect: whether an action is complete or ongoing. Tenses also carry other meanings, such as the future for guessing: serán las cinco, it must be about five.

Spanish and English

Tenses do not map one to one. The Spanish present covers “I work”, “I’m working” and often “I’ll work”, while English simple past splits into the pretérito and the imperfecto.

• Mañana trabajo desde casa.

  Tomorrow I’m working from home.

• Cuando era chico, vivía en Córdoba.

  When I was a kid, I lived in Córdoba.

Also called verb mood · mode

How it works

Spanish has three moods: indicative for what the speaker presents as real, subjunctive for what is wished, doubted, valued or not yet real, and imperative for direct commands. The mood is often chosen by the word that introduces the clause: creo que takes the indicative, quiero que the subjunctive.

Spanish and English

English has almost lost its subjunctive, so learners tend to use the indicative everywhere. In Spanish the choice of mood changes meaning.

• Sé que viene. / Espero que venga.

  I know he’s coming. / I hope he comes.

Also called indicative mood · modo indicativo

How it works

It is the default mood of statements and questions, with the largest set of tenses. It is used after expressions of knowing, believing and saying in the affirmative: creo que, es verdad que, dice que. It is also used after si in real conditions: si llueve, me quedo.

Spanish and English

Negating a belief usually switches to the subjunctive: creo que es cierto, but no creo que sea cierto.

• Creo que tenés razón.

  I think you’re right.

  With tú: tienes.

• Todos los días tomo mate.

  I drink mate every day.

Also called subjunctive mood · modo subjuntivo

How it works

It appears mostly in subordinate clauses, triggered by the main clause: wishes and requests (quiero que vengas), emotions (me alegra que estés), doubt and denial (no creo que sea), and future time after cuando or hasta que. It also forms negative commands and usted commands.

Spanish and English

English rarely marks this: “I want you to come” becomes quiero que vengas, with a new subject and the subjunctive. When the subject stays the same, Spanish uses the infinitive: quiero venir.

• Quiero que vengas el sábado.

  I want you to come on Saturday.

• Avisame cuando llegues.

  Let me know when you arrive.

  With tú: avísame. Future time after cuando takes the subjunctive.

Also called command · commands · orden · imperative mood

How it works

True imperative forms exist only for the informal “you”: vení, comé, decime. Negative commands and usted or ustedes commands borrow the present subjunctive: no vengas, venga usted. Object pronouns attach to the end of an affirmative command and go before a negative one: decímelo, no me lo digas.

Spanish and English

English uses one form for every “you”; Spanish changes it by address and by whether the command is negative.

Regional

The vos imperative drops the -r of the infinitive and stresses the last syllable: hablá, comé, vení. Its negative is usually no hables in Argentina, though no hablés is also heard.

• Vení a comer.

  Come and eat.

  With tú: ven.

• No me digas.

  You don’t say.

Also called perfective · imperfective · perfectivo · imperfectivo

How it works

Perfective forms like the pretérito (comí) present an action as a finished event. Imperfective forms like the imperfecto (comía) present it in progress, as a habit, or as the setting for something else. The difference is in the speaker’s view, not in how long the action took.

Spanish and English

English simple past (“I ate”) covers both, so learners must decide each time. Some verbs change meaning with aspect: conocí (I met) against conocía (I knew).

• Leía cuando sonó el teléfono.

  I was reading when the phone rang.

Also called active voice · passive voice · voz activa · voz pasiva · passive

How it works

In the active voice the subject acts: la empresa contrató a Ana. The passive with ser and a participle makes the receiver the subject, and the participle agrees with it: Ana fue contratada. This passive belongs mostly to writing and news.

Spanish and English

Everyday Spanish prefers other ways to hide the doer: the pasiva refleja (se venden casas), a third-person plural (me robaron) or the active voice. “The house was sold” is more naturally se vendió la casa.

• El puente fue construido en 1920.

  The bridge was built in 1920.

• Se habla español.

  Spanish is spoken.

Also called compound tense · simple tense · tiempo simple · perfect tenses

How it works

Every simple tense has a compound partner that looks back from its point in time: como → he comido, comía → había comido, comeré → habré comido. The compound form presents the action as completed before that point. Nothing can come between haber and the participle.

Spanish and English

English builds perfects with “have”, which also means possession. In Spanish the auxiliary is always haber, never tener: he comido, not tengo comido.

Regional

Much of Latin America, and especially the Río de la Plata, uses the pretérito perfecto (he comido) less than Spain and prefers the simple past for recent events: ¿comiste?

• Nunca he estado en Mendoza.

  I’ve never been to Mendoza.

• Cuando llegué, ya habían salido.

  When I arrived, they had already left.

Also called helping verb · auxiliary · auxiliar

How it works

Haber is the auxiliary of every compound tense, ser of the passive, and verbs like ir, estar, tener, deber or poder of the verb phrases called perífrasis. The auxiliary takes the conjugation; the main verb stays as an infinitive, gerund or participle.

Spanish and English

English uses “do” for questions and negatives. Spanish has no such auxiliary: ¿Hablás inglés? No hablo inglés.

• Hemos terminado.

  We have finished.

• Voy a llamar a mi mamá.

  I’m going to call my mum.

Also called verb phrase · verb construction · modal verb · ir a · tener que · periphrastic

How it works

The auxiliary adds a shade of time, aspect or obligation: ir a + infinitive for plans, tener que for obligation, estar + gerund for ongoing action, acabar de for the recent past, volver a for repetition. The two verbs share one subject and behave as a single verb.

Spanish and English

Many match English phrases (“going to”, “have to”), but some have no English verb: volver a hacer is “do again”, and acabar de llegar is “have just arrived”.

• Tengo que estudiar.

  I have to study.

• Acabo de llegar.

  I’ve just arrived.

Also called transitive verb · intransitive verb · verbo intransitivo · transitive · intransitive

How it works

Comprar needs something bought, so it is transitive: compré pan. Llegar and dormir complete their meaning without an object, so they are intransitive. Many verbs can be both: comer and comer algo.

Spanish and English

The pairs don’t always match English. Buscar, escuchar and esperar take a direct object with no preposition (busco las llaves, “I’m looking for the keys”), while some English transitive verbs need a preposition in Spanish: entrar a la casa, “enter the house” (Spain prefers entrar en).

• Busco las llaves.

  I’m looking for the keys.

• Los chicos ya llegaron.

  The kids have arrived.

Also called copula · copular verb · cópula · ser estar parecer

How it works

Ser, estar and parecer join a subject to an attribute: a noun or adjective that describes it and agrees with it. The verb adds little meaning of its own; the description carries it. Ser and estar split the work that English gives to “be”.

Spanish and English

Choosing between ser and estar is one of the hardest decisions for English speakers, because one English verb covers both.

• La casa es grande, pero está sucia.

  The house is big, but it’s dirty.

• Parecés cansado.

  You look tired.

  With tú: pareces.

Also called reflexive verb · verbo reflexivo · -se verb · reflexive · pronominal

How it works

Sometimes the action falls on the subject itself (me lavo, I wash myself). Often the pronoun adds another meaning: a change of state (me enojé), a completed or sudden action (se comió todo, se fue), or a different verb altogether (acordarse, quejarse). The dictionary lists these with -se: levantarse.

Spanish and English

English rarely marks this, so “I get up” is me levanto and “I remember” is me acuerdo. Leaving out the pronoun can change the meaning: ir is “go”, irse is “leave”.

• Me levanto a las siete.

  I get up at seven.

• ¿Te acordás de ella?

  Do you remember her?

  With tú: ¿te acuerdas?

Also called weather verb · hay · impersonal

How it works

Weather verbs (llueve, nieva) and time expressions with hacer (hace frío, hace dos años) have no subject at all. Haber meaning “there is/are” is also impersonal: hay, había, hubo. Because there is no subject, the verb never becomes plural.

Spanish and English

English needs a dummy subject (“it rains”, “there are”); Spanish has none, so do not add ello or esto. A common error is plural había: había muchas personas, not habían.

• Hubo muchos problemas.

  There were a lot of problems.

• Hace calor y está lloviendo.

  It’s hot and it’s raining.

Also called gustar · verbs like gustar · backwards verbs · encantar · interesar · doler

How it works

In me gusta el café, the subject is el café and me is the indirect object: literally “coffee pleases me”. The verb agrees with the thing, so it is singular or plural: me gustan los perros. To stress or clarify the person, add a + noun or pronoun: a Ana le gusta, a mí me encanta.

Spanish and English

English puts the person first as subject (“I like”), which leads to mistakes like yo gusto el café. Start from the thing and make the verb agree with it.

• Me gustan las empanadas.

  I like empanadas.

• ¿Te duele la cabeza?

  Does your head hurt?

Also called grammatical gender · masculine · feminine · masculino · femenino

How it works

Every noun is either masculine or feminine, and the articles, adjectives and many pronouns around it take the same gender. For people and some animals gender follows sex (el profesor, la profesora); for things it is a property of the word (el mes, la semana). Words ending in -o are usually masculine and words in -a, -ción, -dad and -tud usually feminine, but there are common exceptions such as el día, el mapa, el problema and la mano.

Spanish and English

English has gender only in he, she and it, so English speakers tend to forget that a table or an idea has a gender too. Learn each noun together with its article: la leche, el tema.

• El problema es que la mano me duele.

  The problem is that my hand hurts.

  Problema is masculine and mano feminine, against the usual -a and -o pattern.

• Tengo una reunión nueva el lunes.

  I have a new meeting on Monday.

Also called singular · plural · grammatical number

How it works

Nouns, articles, adjectives, pronouns and verbs all mark number, and they must agree. Nouns ending in a vowel add -s (casa, casas); nouns ending in a consonant add -es (ciudad, ciudades), and a final -z becomes -ces (vez, veces). Some words ending in unstressed -s do not change at all: el lunes, los lunes.

Spanish and English

English marks the plural mainly on the noun; Spanish marks it on every word in the phrase, so los libros viejos carries three plural endings. Some English uncountable nouns are countable in Spanish, and the reverse: los muebles (furniture), la gente (people, singular).

• Los chicos nuevos llegaron tarde.

  The new kids arrived late.

• Lo vi dos veces en tres meses.

  I saw him twice in three months.

Also called grammatical agreement · concord

How it works

Spanish links words by making their endings match. Articles and adjectives agree with their noun in gender and number, and the verb agrees with its subject in person and number. Because the endings carry this information, agreement tells you which words belong together even when word order changes.

Spanish and English

English has almost no agreement beyond he goes and they go, so mismatches like la casa blanco or los chicos viene are among the most common mistakes for English speakers. Check the ending of every word that goes with a noun.

• Las ventanas abiertas dejan entrar el frío.

  The open windows let the cold in.

Also called noun–adjective agreement

How it works

Once a noun is masculine or feminine, everything that describes or points to it follows: el auto rojo, la moto roja. This includes past participles used as adjectives (la puerta cerrada) and object pronouns that refer back to it (la compré). Adjectives ending in -e or a consonant, such as grande or azul, have one form for both genders.

Spanish and English

The usual mistake is letting the adjective default to -o. Watch nouns whose gender does not match their ending: el día largo, la mano fría, el problema grave.

• Compré una camisa blanca y la llevé a la fiesta.

  I bought a white shirt and wore it to the party.

• Fue un día largo.

  It was a long day.

Also called subject-verb agreement · verb agreement

How it works

The verb ending shows who is doing the action, so it must match the subject: yo trabajo, ellos trabajan. When the subject is two nouns joined by y, the verb is plural. A singular collective noun such as la gente or la familia takes a singular verb.

Spanish and English

English only changes the verb for he, she and it in the present, so English speakers often leave the verb in the form they learned first. With gustar-type verbs, remember the subject is the thing liked: me gustan los perros, not me gusta.

• Mi hermana y yo vivimos en Córdoba.

  My sister and I live in Córdoba.

• La gente está cansada.

  People are tired.

Also called nombre colectivo · collective

How it works

A collective noun refers to many people or things but is grammatically singular, so its article, adjectives and verb are singular. La gente is the key one: it means people, yet it takes es, está and dice.

Spanish and English

English people is plural (people are), so the natural mistake is la gente son. British English also lets the team are; Spanish keeps el equipo juega.

• La gente es muy amable acá.

  People are very kind here.

• Mi familia vive en Rosario.

  My family lives in Rosario.

Also called el agua · stressed a · a tónica inicial

How it works

To avoid two a sounds colliding, feminine nouns such as agua, águila, alma, área and hambre take el and un when singular: el agua, un área. The noun is still feminine, so adjectives stay feminine (el agua fría) and the plural returns to las (las aguas). The rule applies only when the first syllable is stressed: la almohada, la amiga.

Spanish and English

Because the article looks masculine, learners often make the adjective masculine too. Say el agua está fría, not frío; also esta agua, not este agua.

• El agua está muy fría.

  The water is very cold.

• Tengo un hambre terrible.

  I’m terribly hungry.

Also called -ito · -ita · -cito

How it works

Diminutives add size, affection or politeness rather than new meaning: casa becomes casita, café becomes cafecito. They attach to nouns, adjectives and even adverbs (ahorita, cerquita). Often they soften a request or make speech warmer rather than describing anything small.

Spanish and English

English has few productive diminutives, so learners underuse them and can sound curt. Some have become separate words: la ventanilla (a car or ticket window), el bolsillo (pocket).

Regional

Latin American Spanish uses -ito very freely. In Argentina and Uruguay you will hear un cafecito, esperá un ratito and chiquito all the time; ahorita is typical of Mexico and the Caribbean, not the River Plate.

• ¿Tomamos un cafecito?

  Shall we have a coffee?

• Esperá un ratito, ya vengo.

  Wait a moment, I’ll be right there.

  With tú: Espera un ratito.

Also called -ón · -ote · -azo

How it works

Augmentatives exaggerate size or intensity, often with a humorous or negative tone: casa becomes casona, grande becomes grandote. The suffix -azo can also mean a blow (un portazo, a slammed door) or something impressive (un golazo). Some have become independent words with their own meaning: el sillón (armchair), el cajón (drawer).

Spanish and English

English expresses this with adjectives like huge or massive. Augmentatives are less predictable than diminutives, so learn the common ones rather than building new ones.

• Metió un golazo en el último minuto.

  He scored a fantastic goal in the last minute.

• Viven en una casona antigua.

  They live in a big old house.

Also called invariable

How it works

Adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions and interjections are invariable: muy, con and pero never take endings. Some adjectives are invariable for gender (grande, feliz, azul), and some nouns are invariable for number (el lunes, los lunes; la crisis, las crisis).

Spanish and English

Learners sometimes add endings where there are none, as in muchos rápido or ellas son muys lindas. If a word is an adverb, it stays the same.

• Ellas están muy cansadas.

  They are very tired.

• Nos vemos los lunes.

  We meet on Mondays.

Also called personal pronouns · pronombres personales

How it works

Personal pronouns change form depending on their job in the sentence. There are subject forms (yo, vos, ella), object forms that attach to the verb (me, te, lo, le, nos) and forms used after a preposition (mí, vos, ella). Choosing the right set for the job is what most pronoun corrections are about.

Spanish and English

English has two main forms (I and me, she and her). Spanish splits the object into direct (lo, la) and indirect (le), and leaves subject pronouns out most of the time.

• Yo te llamo y vos me contás.

  I’ll call you and you tell me about it.

  With tú: Yo te llamo y tú me cuentas.

Also called subject pronouns · yo tú vos él

How it works

Because the verb ending already shows the person, Spanish usually omits the subject pronoun: hablo means I speak. You add it for contrast or emphasis (yo pago, vos no), to make clear who is meant when the ending is ambiguous, or to answer ¿quién?

Spanish and English

English always needs a subject (it rains, I think). Using yo in every sentence sounds insistent in Spanish, and there is no pronoun for it: llueve, es tarde.

Regional

In Argentina and Uruguay the informal you is vos, and ustedes is the only plural you across Latin America.

• Hablo inglés, pero ella habla portugués.

  I speak English, but she speaks Portuguese.

• ¿Quién pidió pizza? — Yo.

  Who ordered pizza? — Me.

Also called direct object pronouns · pronombre de objeto directo · OD · CD · lo la los las

How it works

It answers what? or whom? after the verb. In the third person it agrees with what it replaces: lo for masculine singular, la for feminine, los and las for plurals. Lo also replaces a whole idea: no lo sé.

Spanish and English

English uses it for any thing; Spanish chooses lo or la by the gender of the noun, so la pizza becomes la comí. The pronoun goes before a conjugated verb, not after it.

• ¿La pizza? Ya la pedí.

  The pizza? I’ve already ordered it.

• No lo sé.

  I don’t know.

  Lo stands for the whole idea.

Also called indirect object pronouns · pronombre de objeto indirecto · OI · CI · le les

How it works

It answers to whom? or for whom? Le and les do not change for gender. Spanish often repeats the indirect object, using both the pronoun and the noun in one sentence: le di el libro a Ana. Before lo, la, los or las, le and les become se: se lo di.

Spanish and English

The doubling (le … a Ana) feels redundant to English speakers but is normal and often required. Say se lo di, never le lo di.

• Le mandé un mensaje a mi jefe.

  I sent my boss a message.

• ¿El regalo? Ya se lo di.

  The present? I’ve already given it to her.

Also called reflexive pronouns · me te se nos

How it works

It shows that the subject acts on itself (me lavo, I wash myself) and it appears with pronominal verbs whose meaning requires it (me acuerdo, I remember). In the third person and with usted and ustedes the form is always se.

Spanish and English

English says I get up or I shower with no pronoun; Spanish needs one: me levanto, me ducho. With body parts Spanish uses the reflexive and an article, not a possessive: me lavo las manos.

• Me levanto a las siete.

  I get up at seven.

• ¿Te acordás de ella?

  Do you remember her?

  With tú: ¿Te acuerdas de ella?

Also called prepositional pronouns · pronombre preposicional · pronoun after a preposition · mí ti vos

How it works

After a, de, para, con, sin and most other prepositions, Spanish uses these stressed forms. Only mí and ti differ from the subject forms, and con combines with them as conmigo and contigo. With vos the form stays vos: para vos, con vos.

Spanish and English

Mí needs its accent to distinguish it from the possessive mi. The forms with con are special: say conmigo, not con mí.

Regional

With vos there is no ti or contigo: para vos, con vos.

• Esto es para vos.

  This is for you.

  With tú: Esto es para ti.

• ¿Venís conmigo?

  Are you coming with me?

  With tú: ¿Vienes conmigo?

Also called clítico · clitic pronoun · unstressed pronoun · object pronoun

How it works

Clitics carry no stress of their own, so they must sit right next to a verb, either before it or attached to its end. When two appear together the indirect one comes first and se comes before everything: me lo dijo, se lo explico. They cannot be separated from the verb by other words.

Spanish and English

English object pronouns are ordinary words that follow the verb (I told him). Spanish clitics move before most verb forms and stack in a fixed order.

• Me lo contó ayer.

  He told me about it yesterday.

• Quiero decírtelo.

  I want to tell you about it.

Also called pronoun placement · proclisis · enclisis · proclitic · enclitic

How it works

Before a conjugated verb or a negative command, the pronoun goes in front as a separate word: lo veo, no lo toques. After an infinitive, a gerund or an affirmative command it is attached: verlo, viéndolo, tocalo. When a conjugated verb is followed by an infinitive or gerund, both positions are correct: lo quiero ver and quiero verlo.

Spanish and English

English speakers tend to put the pronoun after the conjugated verb (veo lo). Attaching a pronoun can move the stress so that a written accent is needed: diciéndome, dámelo.

Regional

With vos, attached commands keep the vos form and stress: tocalo, decime, contame.

• Lo quiero ver / Quiero verlo.

  I want to see it.

• Decímelo ya.

  Tell me now.

  With tú: Dímelo ya.

Also called relative pronouns · que quien cual · who which that · relativo

How it works

The relative links a noun to extra information about it. Que is by far the most common and works for people and things. After a preposition you normally use el que, la que (or quien for people): la amiga con la que viajé. Lo que means what, the thing that.

Spanish and English

English can drop that (the book I read); Spanish cannot: el libro que leí. Prepositions go before the relative, never at the end: la casa en la que vivo, not la casa que vivo en.

• El libro que me recomendaste es buenísimo.

  The book you recommended to me is great.

• No entiendo lo que dice.

  I don’t understand what he’s saying.

Also called question word · question words · interrogative · exclamative · pronombre exclamativo · qué quién cuál

How it works

These words ask for the missing information and always carry a written accent, in direct and indirect questions alike: no sé dónde está. The same accented words introduce exclamations: ¡qué lindo!, ¡cuánta gente! Qué asks for a definition or goes before a noun; cuál chooses among options, especially before ser.

Spanish and English

English what covers both qué and cuál. Say ¿cuál es tu número?, not ¿qué es tu número?, which asks what a phone number is.

• ¿Cuál es tu dirección?

  What’s your address?

• ¡Qué lindo día!

  What a lovely day!

Also called indefinite pronouns · alguien nadie algo nada · someone nobody

How it works

Indefinites come in positive and negative pairs: alguien and nadie, algo and nada, alguno and ninguno. The negative forms combine with no before the verb: no vino nadie. Alguno and ninguno shorten to algún and ningún before a masculine singular noun.

Spanish and English

English avoids double negatives (nobody came, I didn’t see anyone). Spanish requires them: no vi a nadie. Nadie and alguien take the personal a when they are the object.

• No vino nadie.

  Nobody came.

• ¿Querés algo?

  Do you want anything?

  With tú: ¿Quieres algo?

Also called se · uses of se · valores de se

How it works

Se is reflexive with third-person subjects (se ducha) and with pronominal verbs (se fue). It is reciprocal with plural subjects (se quieren). It makes a sentence impersonal (se vive bien acá) or passive (se venden casas). And it replaces le or les before lo, la, los, las (se lo dije).

Spanish and English

English has no single equivalent, so each use translates differently: himself, each other, one, people, or a passive. Work out which use you are looking at from the subject and the verb.

• Se venden departamentos.

  Apartments for sale.

  Passive se.

• Se lo expliqué dos veces.

  I explained it to him twice.

  Se replacing le.

Also called impersonal se · one · people in general

How it works

The verb stays in the third-person singular and no one in particular does the action: se come bien acá, se trabaja mucho. It is used with intransitive verbs and with a direct object that is a person, introduced by a: se busca a los responsables.

Spanish and English

English uses you, people, one or they for this. Do not add a subject: se dice que va a llover, not la gente se dice.

• En Buenos Aires se cena tarde.

  In Buenos Aires people have dinner late.

• ¿Cómo se dice «spoon» en español?

  How do you say “spoon” in Spanish?

Also called passive se · se pasivo · reflexive passive

How it works

It is the everyday passive in Spanish, used when who does the action does not matter. The thing affected is the grammatical subject, so the verb agrees with it: se vende una casa, se venden casas. The full passive with ser and a participle is mostly written and formal.

Spanish and English

English says houses are sold; Spanish prefers se venden casas over son vendidas. Remember the plural agreement: se alquilan departamentos.

• Se alquilan departamentos.

  Apartments for rent.

• Acá se habla inglés.

  English is spoken here.

Also called reciprocal · each other · one another · pronombre recíproco

How it works

With a plural subject, the pronoun can show that people act on one another: se quieren, nos escribimos. The form is the same as the reflexive, so context decides; add el uno al otro or mutuamente if you need to be explicit.

Spanish and English

English needs each other; Spanish expresses it with the pronoun alone.

• Nos vemos el viernes.

  We’ll see each other on Friday.

• Ana y Luis se escriben todos los días.

  Ana and Luis write to each other every day.

Also called loísmo · laísmo · le instead of lo

How it works

Standard Spanish uses lo and la for direct objects and le for indirect objects. Leísmo uses le for a male person as a direct object (le vi), which the academies accept for a single male person. Laísmo and loísmo, such as la dije, are regional and considered non-standard.

Spanish and English

You will hear these in recordings and materials from Spain. For Latin American Spanish, keep lo and la for direct objects: lo vi, la llamé.

Regional

Leísmo is common in central and northern Spain and rare in Latin America. The River Plate uses lo and la; le as a direct object appears mainly as a courtesy form with usted, as in le saludo atentamente.

• A Juan lo vi ayer.

  I saw Juan yesterday.

  Latin American standard; much of Spain says le vi.

Also called vos · using vos · voseante

How it works

Vos replaces tú as subject and after prepositions, while te stays the object pronoun and tu the possessive: vos te llamás, tu casa. In the present the stress moves to the ending (hablás, tenés, vivís), and sos is the form of ser. Commands drop the final -r of the infinitive and stress the ending: hablá, tené, vení.

Spanish and English

Textbooks often teach only tú, but vos is not a mistake or slang. In the present subjunctive, the standard vos form in careful speech is the tú form (que tengas), with que tengás heard colloquially.

Regional

Voseo is the standard, educated form in Argentina, Uruguay and Paraguay, and widely used in Central America and parts of Colombia, Venezuela and Chile. In the River Plate tú sounds foreign or literary.

• ¿De dónde sos? ¿Tenés tiempo mañana?

  Where are you from? Do you have time tomorrow?

  With tú: ¿De dónde eres? ¿Tienes tiempo mañana?

• Vení, sentate acá.

  Come, sit here.

  With tú: Ven, siéntate aquí.

Also called tú · using tú · tutear

How it works

Tú is the informal you in Spain, Mexico, the Caribbean, Peru and most of the Spanish-speaking world. Its present forms end in -s with the stress on the stem (hablas, tienes), and its affirmative commands are usually the third-person form (habla) or short irregulars (ven, ten, pon).

Spanish and English

Most textbooks teach tú first, so you will understand it everywhere. In the River Plate, use vos instead to sound natural.

Regional

Tú is also known in Argentina and Uruguay through media and writing, but speakers there use vos. Parts of Uruguay mix tú with vos verb forms (tú tenés).

• ¿Tienes hambre?

  Are you hungry?

  With vos: ¿Tenés hambre?

Also called usted · ustedes · formal you · vosotros

How it works

Usted marks distance or respect and takes the same verb forms as él or ella: usted tiene, ¿usted es de acá? Ustedes is the plural you for everyone in Latin America, formal or not, and takes the ellos forms. The object pronouns are lo, la and le, and the possessive is su.

Spanish and English

Because su can mean his, her, its, their or your, Spanish often clarifies with de usted: el auto de usted. English speakers sometimes mix usted with te or tu in one sentence; keep to le and su.

Regional

Vosotros, the informal plural used in Spain, is not used in Latin America; ustedes covers every plural you. How often usted is used varies: Colombians may use it among friends, while in Argentina vos is used with most adults you know.

• ¿Usted tiene turno?

  Do you have an appointment?

• ¿Ustedes vienen a la cena?

  Are you all coming to dinner?

Also called comparison · más que · menos que · tan como

How it works

Spanish compares with más (more) or menos (less) before the adjective, adverb or noun, and que before the second term: más alto que yo. Equality uses tan … como with adjectives and adverbs, and tanto … como with nouns, where tanto agrees: tanta gente como ayer. A few comparatives are single words: mejor, peor, mayor, menor.

Spanish and English

English adds -er to short adjectives (taller); Spanish always uses más. Before a number, than is de, not que: más de diez personas.

• Mi hermano es más alto que yo.

  My brother is taller than me.

• Hoy no hace tanto frío como ayer.

  It isn’t as cold today as yesterday.

Also called relative superlative · superlativo relativo · the most

How it works

The relative superlative is the definite article plus más or menos plus the adjective, with de introducing the group: el más rápido del equipo. The irregular forms are el mejor, el peor, el mayor and el menor. The article agrees with the noun.

Spanish and English

English says the tallest in the class; Spanish uses de, not en: la más alta de la clase. Spanish does not have a separate -est ending.

• Es el restaurante más barato del barrio.

  It’s the cheapest restaurant in the neighbourhood.

• Fue la mejor clase de la semana.

  It was the best class of the week.

Also called -ísimo · -ísima · elative

How it works

Adding -ísimo to an adjective means very or extremely: rico becomes riquísimo, fácil becomes facilísimo. It agrees in gender and number like any adjective, and spelling adjusts to keep the sound (rico, riquísimo; largo, larguísimo). It is common in everyday speech and sounds warm and expressive.

Spanish and English

English has no ending for this; it says very or really. In Spanish -ísimo is everyday and expressive: carísimo sounds more natural than muy, muy caro.

• La comida estuvo riquísima.

  The food was delicious.

• Está carísimo todo.

  Everything is so expensive.

Also called apocope · shortened adjective · buen · gran · primer

How it works

Several adjectives and determiners drop their ending before a masculine singular noun: buen día, mal momento, primer piso, tercer año, algún lugar, ningún problema. Grande becomes gran before any singular noun and then means great rather than big. Santo becomes san before most names, and ciento becomes cien before nouns.

Spanish and English

English has no equivalent, so learners say un bueno día. The short form is used only before the noun; after it you keep the full word: un día bueno.

• ¡Buen viaje!

  Have a good trip!

• Vivo en el primer piso.

  I live on the first floor.

Also called adjective placement · adjective order

How it works

Most descriptive adjectives follow the noun and pick it out from others: un auto rojo. Before the noun an adjective describes a quality taken for granted or adds a subjective tone: la hermosa ciudad. A few change meaning with position: un gran hombre (a great man) and un hombre grande (a big man), un viejo amigo (a longtime friend) and un amigo viejo (an elderly friend).

Spanish and English

English puts almost every adjective before the noun. In Spanish, put descriptive adjectives after the noun by default; numbers, determiners and quantifiers go before.

• Compramos un sillón nuevo.

  We bought a new armchair.

• Es un viejo amigo mío.

  He’s an old friend of mine.

  Before the noun viejo means longtime, not elderly.

Also called manner adverb · how

How it works

Adverbs of manner answer ¿cómo? Many are formed with -mente (tranquilamente), and a few short ones are used without it: bien, mal, así, despacio, rápido, fuerte. Like all adverbs they never change form.

Spanish and English

Bien and mal are adverbs; bueno and malo are adjectives. Say hablás bien, not hablás bueno.

• Hablás muy bien español.

  You speak Spanish very well.

  With tú: Hablas muy bien español.

• Hablá más despacio, por favor.

  Speak more slowly, please.

  With tú: Habla más despacio.

Also called time adverb · when

How it works

Adverbs of time answer ¿cuándo? or ¿con qué frecuencia? They place an event (ayer, ahora, después), mark whether it has happened (ya, todavía, aún) or say how often (siempre, a veces, nunca). Ya and todavía are among the most useful: ya terminé (I have already finished), todavía no (not yet).

Spanish and English

Ya covers already, now and any more depending on the sentence: ya no vive acá means he doesn’t live here any more. Nunca before the verb needs no no; after the verb it does: nunca voy, no voy nunca.

• Todavía no terminé.

  I haven’t finished yet.

• Ya llegamos.

  We’ve arrived.

Also called place adverb · where · acá allá aquí allí

How it works

Adverbs of place answer ¿dónde? Several come in pairs by distance from the speaker: acá or aquí (here), allá or allí (there). Many combine with de to become prepositions: cerca de la plaza, arriba de la mesa.

Spanish and English

Here and there have two sets in Spanish, and the choice depends on region more than meaning. Adentro and afuera are usual without a following noun; dentro de and fuera de come before one.

Regional

In the River Plate and much of Latin America acá and allá are the everyday forms; aquí and allí sound more formal or European. Arriba de and abajo de are common for on and under.

• Vení acá.

  Come here.

  With tú: Ven acá.

• Vivo cerca del trabajo.

  I live near work.

Also called adverb of quantity · intensifier · muy mucho · degree adverb

How it works

These adverbs intensify or reduce: muy cansado, bastante lejos, demasiado caro. Muy goes before adjectives and adverbs, mucho after verbs: trabaja mucho. When mucho, poco or demasiado go with a noun they are quantifiers and agree: muchas cosas.

Spanish and English

English very and much map to muy and mucho, but not word for word: very much is muchísimo, never muy mucho. Muy cannot stand alone as an answer; say mucho.

• Estoy muy cansado y trabajé mucho.

  I’m very tired and I worked a lot.

• Es demasiado caro.

  It’s too expensive.

Also called -mente · -ly adverb · mente

How it works

The ending -mente works like English -ly. It attaches to the feminine singular (lenta, lentamente) or to the single form of adjectives like fácil (fácilmente). The adjective keeps its written accent. When two such adverbs are joined, only the last takes -mente: clara y lentamente.

Spanish and English

Spoken Spanish often prefers other options: rápido instead of rápidamente, or con cuidado instead of cuidadosamente. Long chains of -mente adverbs sound heavy.

• Explicó todo claramente.

  She explained everything clearly.

• Realmente no sé.

  I really don’t know.

Also called adverbial expression · adverbial locution

How it works

Adverbial phrases behave like one word and do not change: de vez en cuando, a propósito, sin embargo, por supuesto. They often start with a preposition. Learning them as whole chunks is far easier than analysing each part.

Spanish and English

Many do not translate word for word: a lo mejor means maybe, de golpe means suddenly. Treat them as vocabulary rather than grammar.

• A veces voy en bici al trabajo.

  Sometimes I cycle to work.

• A lo mejor llueve mañana.

  Maybe it’ll rain tomorrow.

Also called frase · enunciado

How it works

A Spanish sentence normally has a subject and a predicate, and its core is a conjugated verb. Because the verb ending already shows who acts, a single word can be a whole sentence: “Llegué.” Sentences are classed by attitude (statement, question, exclamation, command) and by structure (simple, or complex with several clauses).

Spanish and English

English needs a stated subject (“It’s raining”); Spanish does not (“Llueve”). Spanish uses “oración” for the grammatical unit, while “frase” in everyday speech often means any phrase or saying.

• Llegué.

  I arrived.

  One word, one sentence.

• Mi hermana vive en Córdoba.

  My sister lives in Córdoba.

Also called proposición · oración simple

How it works

Every conjugated verb brings its own clause, so a sentence with two verbs usually has two clauses. Traditional Spanish grammar called a clause inside a sentence a “proposición”; the RAE now prefers to speak of an “oración” inside another. Clauses combine by coordination (equal rank) or subordination (one depends on another).

Spanish and English

Counting conjugated verbs works the same way in both languages. Spanish grammar books may say “oración” where English would say “clause”, so read the context.

• Llamé a Ana pero no contestó.

  I called Ana but she didn’t answer.

  Two clauses joined by pero.

Also called independent clause · cláusula principal

How it works

A main clause could stand alone as a sentence. The subordinate clauses attached to it fill a role inside it: object, modifier or circumstance. The verb of the main clause often decides the mood of the subordinate one: “quiero que…” calls for the subjunctive, “sé que…” for the indicative.

Spanish and English

In English the main verb rarely changes the form of the verb after “that”. In Spanish, check the main verb first, because it decides between indicative and subjunctive below it.

• Quiero que vengas mañana.

  I want you to come tomorrow.

  Quiero triggers the subjunctive in the clause after it.

Also called dependent clause · proposición subordinada · subordinación

How it works

A subordinate clause cannot stand alone; it works like a noun, an adjective or an adverb within the main clause. Spanish grammar sorts them into three kinds by that job: noun clauses (sustantivas), relative clauses (de relativo) and adverbial clauses. Many of them take the subjunctive, depending on what the main clause expresses.

Spanish and English

English often turns a subordinate clause into an infinitive (“I want you to come”). Spanish keeps a full clause with its own subject and verb when the subjects differ: “quiero que vengas”.

• Me dijo que estaba cansado.

  He told me he was tired.

• Te llamo cuando llegue.

  I’ll call you when I arrive.

Also called that-clause · oración completiva · subordinada sustantiva

How it works

Noun clauses usually start with que, or with si or a question word for indirect questions. You can test one by replacing it with “eso”: “Sé que viene” → “Sé eso”. After verbs of wanting, feeling, advising or doubting, the verb inside takes the subjunctive; after verbs of saying, knowing or believing, the indicative.

Spanish and English

English can drop “that” (“I think he’s coming”); Spanish cannot drop que: “Creo que viene”, never “Creo viene”.

• Creo que viene el sábado.

  I think he’s coming on Saturday.

• Me alegra que estés bien.

  I’m glad you’re well.

  Emotion triggers the subjunctive.

Also called oración adjetiva · subordinada adjetiva · adjective clause

How it works

A relative clause works like an adjective: it tells you which person or thing, or adds information about it. The noun it describes is its antecedent. When the antecedent is unknown or hypothetical, the verb goes into the subjunctive: “Busco un departamento que tenga balcón.”

Spanish and English

English often omits the relative word (“the book I read”); Spanish never does: “el libro que leí”. Spanish also never ends a clause with a preposition; it moves it to the front: “la chica con la que hablé”.

• El libro que me prestaste está buenísimo.

  The book you lent me is really good.

• Busco un departamento que tenga balcón.

  I’m looking for an apartment that has a balcony.

  The apartment is hypothetical, so the subjunctive.

Also called subordinada adverbial · subordinada circunstancial

How it works

Adverbial clauses are introduced by conjunctions such as cuando, porque, aunque, para que, si or antes de que. Some always take the subjunctive (para que, antes de que); time clauses about the future take it too (“cuando llegues”). Others vary with meaning: aunque with the indicative states a fact, with the subjunctive concedes a possibility.

Spanish and English

English uses the present for future time after “when” (“when you arrive”); Spanish uses the present subjunctive, not the future: “cuando llegues”, never “cuando llegarás”.

• Avisame cuando llegues.

  Let me know when you arrive.

  With tú: Avísame cuando llegues.

• Te lo explico para que lo entiendas.

  I’m explaining it so that you understand it.

Also called coordination · coordinación · compound sentence

How it works

In coordination neither clause depends on the other; each could stand alone. The link shows the relationship: adding (y, ni), choosing (o), contrasting (pero, sino) or explaining (o sea, es decir). The conjunction y becomes e before a word starting with an i sound, and o becomes u before an o sound.

Spanish and English

English “but” covers two Spanish words: pero adds a contrast, while sino corrects a negative: “No es caro, sino barato.”

• Estudio de día y trabajo de noche.

  I study by day and work at night.

• No vino el lunes, sino el martes.

  He didn’t come on Monday, but on Tuesday.

Also called grammatical subject

How it works

The subject decides the verb ending: “yo como”, “ellos comen”. In Spanish it can come before or after the verb, and it is often left out because the ending already shows it. With verbs like gustar, the subject is the thing that pleases, not the person: in “me gustan los perros”, the subject is los perros.

Spanish and English

English marks the subject by its position before the verb; Spanish marks it by agreement, so it can move: “Llegó tu hermano.” With gustar, the English subject (“I”) is not the Spanish one.

• Mis amigos llegan mañana.

  My friends arrive tomorrow.

• Me gustan las empanadas.

  I like empanadas.

  Las empanadas is the subject, so the verb is plural.

Also called dropped subject · omitted subject · sujeto omitido · sujeto elíptico · pro-drop

How it works

Spanish normally leaves out subject pronouns: “Vivo en Rosario” is complete without yo. Saying the pronoun adds emphasis or contrast (“Yo pago, vos invitás la próxima”) or clears up ambiguity where forms coincide, as in “él/ella/usted tenía”.

Spanish and English

English speakers tend to repeat yo, él and ella in every sentence. That is grammatical but sounds insistent or contrastive; drop the pronoun unless you mean it.

• Vivo en Rosario y trabajo en un banco.

  I live in Rosario and work at a bank.

• Yo pago hoy, vos pagás la próxima.

  I’ll pay today, you pay next time.

  With tú: tú pagas la próxima. The pronouns are there for contrast.

Also called predicate phrase

How it works

The predicate says what is stated about the subject. Its core is the verb, surrounded by objects and other complements. A predicate with ser, estar or parecer plus a description is a nominal predicate (predicado nominal); any other is a verbal predicate (predicado verbal).

Spanish and English

The idea is the same in both languages, but a Spanish predicate can come first and the subject last: “Me encanta esta ciudad.”

• Mi abuela cocina muy bien.

  My grandmother cooks very well.

• La sopa está fría.

  The soup is cold.

  Nominal predicate: estar plus an attribute.

Also called CD · OD · objeto directo · object

How it works

The direct object answers “what?” or “whom?” after the verb. It can be replaced by lo, la, los or las: “Compré el pan” → “Lo compré.” When it is a specific person or pet, Spanish puts a in front: “Vi a Juan.” Only transitive verbs take one.

Spanish and English

English has no marker for a human direct object; Spanish requires a (“Conozco a tu hermano”). When the object comes before the verb, Spanish repeats it with a pronoun: “El pan lo compré yo.”

• Compré el pan. → Lo compré.

  I bought the bread. → I bought it.

• Visité a mis abuelos.

  I visited my grandparents.

  A person as direct object takes a.

Also called CI · OI · objeto indirecto

How it works

The indirect object answers “to whom?” or “for whom?”. It is replaced by le or les, and Spanish very often uses the pronoun even when the noun is also there: “Le di el libro a Marta.” It also marks the person affected with verbs like gustar, doler or parecer.

Spanish and English

English says “I gave Marta the book” with no extra word; Spanish normally doubles it: “Le di el libro a Marta.” Leaving out le is not wrong but often sounds stiff.

• Le di el libro a Marta.

  I gave Marta the book.

  Le and a Marta refer to the same person.

• A mi papá le duele la espalda.

  My dad’s back hurts.

Also called complemento de régimen preposicional · suplemento · verb + preposition · prepositional object

How it works

Some verbs demand a specific preposition before their object, and it cannot be swapped: “Pienso en vos”, “Depende de vos”, “Me acordé de tu cumpleaños.” The preposition belongs to the verb, so it has to be learned with it. If the complement is a clause, the preposition stays in front of que: “Me acordé de que era tu cumpleaños.”

Spanish and English

The Spanish preposition rarely matches the English one: “think about” is pensar en, “dream about” is soñar con, “fall in love with” is enamorarse de. Dropping the de before que (“me acordé que”) is common in speech but corrected in writing.

• Siempre pienso en vos.

  I always think about you.

  With tú: Siempre pienso en ti.

• Me acordé de llamarte.

  I remembered to call you.

Also called predicate adjective · predicative · predicado nominal · complemento atributivo

How it works

The attribute describes or identifies the subject, and it agrees with it in gender and number: “Las calles están mojadas.” It is replaced by the invariable pronoun lo: “¿Está cansada? Sí, lo está.” Whether it goes with ser or estar depends on meaning.

Spanish and English

English uses “to be” for all of this; Spanish splits it between ser and estar. The adjective must also match the subject: “Ellas son altas”, not “Ellas son alto”.

• Mi hermano es médico.

  My brother is a doctor.

  No article before an unmodified profession.

• Las chicas están cansadas.

  The girls are tired.

Also called CC · adverbial complement · adjunct · adverbial phrase

How it works

Circumstantial complements can usually be removed without breaking the sentence, and they move fairly freely. They are adverbs, prepositional phrases or noun phrases of time: “ayer”, “en el parque”, “con cuidado”, “el lunes”. They are grouped by what they add: time, place, manner, cause, purpose, company, instrument.

Spanish and English

English piles adverbials at the end in a fixed order (manner, place, time). Spanish is freer and often puts time or place first: “El lunes vamos al cine.” Days of the week take el and no preposition: “el lunes”, not “en lunes”.

• El sábado comimos en lo de mi tía.

  On Saturday we ate at my aunt’s place.

  “En lo de” is Rioplatense for “at someone’s place”; elsewhere “en casa de”.

• Manejá con cuidado.

  Drive carefully.

  With tú: Maneja con cuidado.

Also called orden sintáctico · syntax order · SVO

How it works

The neutral Spanish order is subject, verb, object, but it is flexible: information that is new or emphasised tends to go last. Some positions are fixed: object pronouns go before a conjugated verb (“lo veo”), adjectives usually follow the noun (“una casa blanca”), and no word separates haber from its participle (“lo he visto”, not “he lo visto”). In questions the subject usually follows the verb: “¿Dónde vive tu hermana?”

Spanish and English

English relies on position to show who does what; Spanish relies on agreement and markers like a, so it moves words for emphasis instead. Carrying English order over gives errors like “yo lo no sé” (for “yo no lo sé”) or “una blanca casa”.

• No lo sé.

  I don’t know.

  No comes first, then the pronoun, then the verb.

• ¿Cuándo llega tu vuelo?

  When does your flight arrive?

  Verb before subject after a question word.

Also called differential object marking · marcado diferencial de objeto · a personal · DOM

How it works

When the direct object is a known human being, Spanish marks it with a: “Veo a María”, “Llamé a mi mamá.” Things and unspecified people take no a: “Busco un plomero” (any plumber) versus “Busco al plomero” (the one we know). The a does not appear after tener with people: “Tengo dos hermanos.”

Spanish and English

English has nothing like it, so learners leave it out: “Conozco tu hermano” should be “Conozco a tu hermano.” It is not translated; “to” in English is not what it means.

• Anoche vi a Martín en el bar.

  I saw Martín at the bar last night.

• Buscamos a la profesora / Buscamos una profesora.

  We’re looking for the teacher / We’re looking for a teacher.

  A specific person takes a; an unspecified one does not.

Also called negative · double negative · doble negación · no

How it works

No goes directly before the verb, with only object pronouns in between: “No lo tengo.” Negative words after the verb need no before it, so two negatives make a negative, not a positive: “No vino nadie.” If the negative word comes first, no is dropped: “Nadie vino”, “Nunca como carne.”

Spanish and English

English avoids double negatives (“I don’t see anything”); Spanish requires them: “No veo nada”, not “No veo algo.” English “either” in negatives is tampoco: “Yo tampoco.”

• No conozco a nadie acá.

  I don’t know anyone here.

• Nunca tomo café de noche.

  I never drink coffee at night.

  Nunca comes first, so no is not needed.

Also called interrogative sentence · pregunta · interrogativas · indirect question · interrogativa indirecta

How it works

Yes/no questions often keep statement order and rely on rising intonation: “¿Tenés hambre?” Questions with a question word put it first, with an accent, and the subject usually after the verb: “¿Dónde trabaja tu papá?” Indirect questions use si or a question word, still accented, without question marks: “No sé dónde trabaja.”

Spanish and English

Spanish has no “do” auxiliary; the verb itself carries the question. Written questions open with ¿ as well as closing with ?, and the opening mark goes where the question starts: “Y vos, ¿qué hacés?”

• ¿Tenés hambre?

  Are you hungry?

  With tú: ¿Tienes hambre?

• No sé dónde vive.

  I don’t know where she lives.

  Indirect question: dónde keeps its accent.

Also called if-clause · si-clause · prótasis · apódosis · condicional

How it works

Real or likely conditions use the present after si: “Si llueve, nos quedamos.” Unlikely or imagined ones use the imperfect subjunctive with the conditional: “Si tuviera tiempo, viajaría.” Past, unrealised ones use the pluperfect subjunctive: “Si hubiera sabido, te habría llamado” (in speech often “te llamaba”). The si-clause never takes the present subjunctive or the future.

Spanish and English

English “if I would have” has no Spanish equivalent: after si comes the subjunctive, never the conditional. “Si tendría” is a common learner and regional error; say “si tuviera”.

• Si llueve, nos quedamos en casa.

  If it rains, we’ll stay home.

• Si tuviera más tiempo, aprendería a tocar la guitarra.

  If I had more time, I would learn to play the guitar.

Also called indirect speech · discurso indirecto · estilo directo · direct speech

How it works

In reported speech the words become a clause after a verb of saying, and pronouns, time words and often tenses shift. With a past reporting verb, a present becomes an imperfect (“estoy” → “estaba”) and a future becomes a conditional (“iré” → “iría”). Reported commands and requests take the subjunctive: “Me dijo que lo llamara.”

Spanish and English

English backshifts in a similar way, but it reports commands with an infinitive (“she told me to call”). Spanish needs que plus the subjunctive: “me dijo que llamara”.

• «Estoy cansada.» → Dijo que estaba cansada.

  “I’m tired.” → She said she was tired.

• Me pidió que la llamara.

  She asked me to call her.

Also called discourse marker · marcador discursivo · linking word · conector · transition word

How it works

Connectors signal addition (además), contrast (sin embargo, en cambio), consequence (por eso, así que), reformulation (o sea, es decir) or order (primero, después). They make speech sound fluent and organised, and many conversational ones carry attitude more than logic: bueno, digamos, igual.

Spanish and English

Direct translations often misfire: “actualmente” means “currently”, not “actually” (that is en realidad). In Rioplatense speech, igual often means “anyway” or “still”, not “the same”.

Regional

Rioplatense conversation leans on o sea, igual, bueno and viste as fillers and softeners; they are informal but not slang.

• Estaba cansado; sin embargo, salí a correr.

  I was tired; however, I went for a run.

• Llueve. Igual vamos, ¿no?

  It’s raining. We’re still going, right?

  Rioplatense igual: “anyway, still”.

Also called time markers · marcadores temporales · hace · desde hace · hace que

How it works

Hace plus a time span means “ago” with a past tense: “Llegué hace dos años.” For something still going on, Spanish uses the present with desde hace or hace… que: “Vivo acá desde hace dos años” or “Hace dos años que vivo acá.” Time markers also steer tense choice: ayer and el año pasado point to the preterite, siempre and de chico to the imperfect.

Spanish and English

English uses the present perfect for ongoing duration (“I have lived here for two years”); Spanish uses the present. “He vivido acá por dos años” is a typical English-shaped error.

• Vivo en Buenos Aires desde hace dos años.

  I’ve been living in Buenos Aires for two years.

• Nos conocimos hace cinco años.

  We met five years ago.

Also called vowel sound · vocal abierta · vocal cerrada

How it works

Spanish has five pure vowels, each with one steady sound whether stressed or not. A, e and o are called open (strong) vowels; i and u are closed (weak). The difference matters for syllables: two open vowels sit in separate syllables, while a closed vowel next to another vowel usually forms a diphthong.

Spanish and English

English vowels glide and weaken in unstressed syllables, so “o” can sound like “ow” and unstressed vowels turn into “uh”. In Spanish, keep every vowel short and clear: the three a’s in “banana” sound the same.

• a, e, i, o, u

  the five vowels

• banana

  banana

  All three a’s have the same sound.

Also called consonant sound

How it works

Spanish consonants are mostly close to English ones, with a few key differences. B and v sound the same; between vowels, b/v, d and g soften to a light, breathy sound (“lado” has a soft d, like the th in “this”). R is a single tap between vowels (“pero”), while rr and initial r are trilled (“perro”, “rojo”). H is silent, and j is a throaty h.

Spanish and English

Spanish p, t and k have no puff of air after them, unlike English. The tap in “pero” is close to the American tt in “butter”; mixing up pero (but) and perro (dog) changes the word.

• pero / perro

  but / dog

  A single tap against a trill.

• vaca, boca

  cow, mouth

  B and v have the same sound.

Also called syllabification · división silábica · silabeo

How it works

Spanish syllables tend to end in a vowel: a single consonant between vowels goes with the next vowel (ca-sa, pe-lo). Two consonants usually split (can-to), except pairs like pl, br or tr, which stay together (ha-blar, o-tro). Counting syllables from the end is how you apply the written accent rules.

Spanish and English

English syllables often end in consonants (“cam-el”); Spanish prefers to open the next syllable (ca-mi-no). Spanish rhythm gives each syllable roughly the same length, which is why it can sound fast.

• ca-mi-no

  path, road

  Three syllables, each ending in a vowel.

• ha-blar

  to speak

  The pair bl stays together.

Also called tonic syllable · sílaba átona · unstressed syllable

How it works

Every Spanish word of more than one syllable has one stressed syllable, and its position can change meaning: “papa” (potato) versus “papá” (dad). Where the stressed syllable sits (last, second-to-last, third-to-last) gives the word its type: aguda, llana or esdrújula. That type decides whether the word needs a written accent.

Spanish and English

English speakers often stress by habit or by the English cognate: “hotel” and “animal” are stressed on the last syllable in Spanish (ho-tel, a-ni-mal). Unstressed vowels keep their full sound.

• pa-pa / pa-pá

  potato / dad

  Moving the stress changes the word.

• a-ni-mal

  animal

  Stress on the last syllable.

Also called accent · acento prosódico · word stress · stress accent · acento de intensidad

How it works

In Spanish grammar “acento” means stress: every word has an acento prosódico on one syllable. Only some words also show it in writing with a tilde, following fixed rules. So “casa” and “café” both have an acento; only café has a tilde.

Spanish and English

In English “accent” usually means a regional way of speaking or the written mark. Spanish uses tilde for the mark and acento for both the stress and, loosely, the mark; a regional accent is also “acento” (“acento porteño”).

• ca-sa, ca-fé

  house, coffee

  Both are stressed; only café needs a tilde.

Also called accent mark · acento gráfico · acento ortográfico · acute accent

How it works

The tilde appears only where the general rules require it: on agudas ending in a vowel, n or s (café, canción), on llanas ending in anything else (árbol, fácil), on every esdrújula (música), and to break a diphthong (día). It never changes the vowel’s sound; it only marks stress. A few short words carry one to separate meanings (tú/tu).

Spanish and English

Leaving out tildes is a spelling mistake in Spanish, not a style choice, and it can change the word: “papa/papá”, “hablo/habló”. Capital letters keep their tilde too: Ángela, ÁFRICA.

• can-ción, ár-bol, mú-si-ca

  song, tree, music

  Aguda, llana and esdrújula, each needing a tilde.

• ha-blo / ha-bló

  I speak / he spoke

Also called acento diacrítico · diacritic

How it works

Most one-syllable words never take a tilde, but some pairs do, to separate a stressed word from an unstressed one: tú (you) / tu (your), él (he) / el (the), sí (yes) / si (if), mí (me) / mi (my), té (tea) / te (you, object), más (more) / mas (but, literary), sé (I know) / se. Question and exclamation words also take one: qué, cómo, dónde, cuándo.

Spanish and English

English has nothing similar. Learners often write “tu” for “you” or drop the tilde from “qué” in questions. Since 2010 the RAE has not required a tilde on solo or on demonstratives like este; it is at most optional, where a sentence would otherwise be ambiguous.

• Es para mí, no para mi hermano.

  It’s for me, not for my brother.

• Sí, voy si puedo.

  Yes, I’ll go if I can.

Also called oxytone · aguda · palabra oxítona

How it works

An aguda takes a written accent when it ends in a vowel, n or s: café, canción, compás. Ending in any other consonant, it does not: reloj, ciudad, hablar. Every verb infinitive is aguda (hablar, comer, vivir), and so are the vos present forms, which is why they carry a tilde: tenés, querés, sabés.

Spanish and English

Many English cognates move the stress: Spanish “hotel”, “papel” and “capital” are agudas. The tilde on vos forms is not optional; “tenes” is a spelling error.

• ca-fé, can-ción, re-loj

  coffee, song, clock

  Tilde after a vowel or n; none after j.

• ¿Vos te-nés tiempo?

  Do you have time?

  With tú: ¿Tú tienes tiempo? (a llana, no tilde).

Also called palabra grave · grave · paroxytone · paroxítona · llana

How it works

A llana takes a written accent only when it does not end in a vowel, n or s: árbol, fácil, lápiz, azúcar. Ending in a vowel, n or s, it does not: casa, joven, lunes. Because this is the most common pattern, a word ending in a vowel, n or s with no tilde is read as llana.

Spanish and English

The rule is the mirror image of the aguda rule, which is why it trips people up. Plurals can move a word between types and gain or lose a tilde: joven → jóvenes, canción → canciones.

• ca-sa, jo-ven, ár-bol

  house, young, tree

  Only árbol needs a tilde: it ends in l.

Also called proparoxytone · esdrújula · sobresdrújula · palabra sobresdrújula

How it works

Every esdrújula takes a written accent, with no exceptions: música, pájaro, rápido. Sobresdrújulas, stressed even earlier, also always take one; they mostly arise when pronouns are attached to a verb: dígamelo, explicándoselo. Adding pronouns to a command or gerund often turns it into an esdrújula that now needs a tilde: “mirá” + “lo” is still “miralo”, but “explica” + “me” is “explícame”.

Spanish and English

English speakers often shift the stress in cognates like teléfono (te-LÉ-fo-no, not TE-le-fono) or América (a-MÉ-ri-ca).

• mú-si-ca, te-lé-fo-no

  music, telephone

  Esdrújulas always take a tilde.

• dí-ga-me-lo

  tell it to me (usted)

  Sobresdrújula, from diga + me + lo.

Also called triptongo · triphthong

How it works

A diphthong forms when an unstressed i or u meets another vowel: bai-le, cie-lo, cua-tro, ciu-dad. It counts as one syllable for the accent rules, and a tilde goes on the open vowel if needed: can-ción, des-pués. Three vowels together in one syllable are a triphthong: buey, Uruguay.

Spanish and English

English spelling hides diphthongs; in Spanish you see exactly what you say. Stem-changing verbs create diphthongs: poder → puedo, querer → quiero.

• cie-lo, cua-tro, ciu-dad

  sky, four, city

  Each bold part is one syllable.

Also called vowel hiatus

How it works

A hiatus happens when two open vowels meet (ca-er, po-e-ta, ma-es-tro), when the same vowel repeats (le-er, co-o-pe-rar), or when a stressed i or u sits next to an open vowel. In that last case the i or u always carries a tilde to show the break: dí-a, pa-ís, ba-úl, re-ír. That tilde overrides the normal accent rules.

Spanish and English

The tilde tells you where to stress: “día” is two syllables, stressed on the i. English speakers may glide the vowels together into one syllable (“dya”).

• dí-a, pa-ís

  day, country

  The tilde breaks the diphthong.

• ma-es-tro

  teacher, master

  Two open vowels, two syllables.

Also called umlaut · crema · dieresis · ü

How it works

In gue and gui the u is normally silent and only makes the g hard: guerra, guitarra. When the u should be heard, it takes a diéresis: pingüino, vergüenza, lingüística, argüir. It appears only in these two combinations.

Spanish and English

It is not a German umlaut and does not change the vowel’s quality; it just switches the u back on.

• pin-güi-no / gui-ta-rra

  penguin / guitar

  Heard u against silent u.

• Me da vergüenza.

  I’m embarrassed.

Also called synalepha · linking · enlace · liaison

How it works

In connected speech Spanish runs words together when a vowel meets a vowel: “la amiga” sounds like “lamiga”, “va a ir” like “vair”. This is why phrases can sound like one long word. Consonants also link to a following vowel: “los otros” is said lo-so-tros.

Spanish and English

English often keeps a tiny break or a glottal stop between words (“the | apple”). Linking words smoothly is a big part of sounding natural and of understanding fast speech.

• ¿Qué va a hacer?

  What is he going to do?

  Said roughly as “que-va-cer”; the h is silent.

• los otros

  the others

  Said lo-so-tros.

Also called melody · pitch · prosodia · prosody

How it works

Spanish statements end falling; yes/no questions usually end rising, which is often the only difference from the statement: “Tenés auto.” / “¿Tenés auto?” Questions with a question word usually fall at the end. Intonation also carries surprise, doubt or politeness.

Spanish and English

Because Spanish can keep statement order in questions, intonation does work that English does with “do”. A flat or falling end can make a question sound like a statement.

Regional

Rioplatense intonation is often described as close to Italian, with long, rising-falling contours and a lengthened stressed syllable; that resemblance is usually linked to Italian immigration to the region. It is noticeably different from Mexican or Colombian melody.

• Tenés auto. / ¿Tenés auto?

  You have a car. / Do you have a car?

  Same words; the pitch rises at the end of the question. With tú: tienes.

Also called s pronunciation of c and z · ceceo · distinción

How it works

With seseo, “cena”, “zapato” and “cocinar” are all said with an s sound. It is the norm in all of Latin America, the Canary Islands and parts of Andalusia, and fully standard. Spelling still distinguishes them, so you have to learn which words use c, z or s.

Spanish and English

Most of Spain uses distinción, a th sound for z and ce/ci. You do not need it for Latin American Spanish, and mixing both systems sounds odd.

Regional

Seseo is universal in Latin America, including the Río de la Plata.

• casa / caza

  house / hunt

  With seseo these sound the same.

• zapato, cena

  shoe, dinner

  Said with s: sapato, sena.

Also called ll and y merger · lleísmo

How it works

Almost all Spanish speakers today are yeístas: ll and y share one sound. In most of Latin America that sound is close to the English y in “yes”, sometimes a little stronger. Spelling still keeps them apart, so ll and y have to be learned word by word.

Spanish and English

The old distinction, with ll as a sound like “lli” in “million”, survives only in small areas (parts of the Andes, Paraguay and rural Spain). Learners do not need it.

Regional

In the Río de la Plata region the shared sound is a sh or zh; that variety has its own name, sheísmo or zheísmo.

• calló / cayó

  he went quiet / he fell

  Same pronunciation.

Also called zheísmo · yeísmo rehilado · rehilamiento · sh sound · zh sound

How it works

In Buenos Aires, Montevideo and the surrounding region, ll and y are pronounced with a hushing sound. The voiced version, like the s in “measure” [ʒ], is called zheísmo; the voiceless one, like the sh in “show” [ʃ], is sheísmo, and it is now the most common among younger speakers. It is the most recognisable feature of the accent.

Spanish and English

It is not a mistake or slang; it is the standard pronunciation there. The y in “hay” or “muy”, at the end of a word, keeps its vowel sound: “hay” is not “hash”.

Regional

Typical of Argentina and Uruguay around the Río de la Plata. Other regions use a y sound.

• Yo me llamo Juan.

  My name is Juan.

  Said roughly “sho me shamo Juan”.

• la calle, la playa

  the street, the beach

  “cashe”, “plasha”.

Also called aspirated s · s aspirada · dropping the s · elisión de la s

How it works

In many varieties an s before a consonant or at the end of a word weakens to a breathy h: “los mismos” sounds like “loh mihmoh”, “está” like “ehtá”. Before a vowel it is usually kept. The written s never changes; this is purely pronunciation.

Spanish and English

Learners listening for every s can miss plurals and verb endings in fast speech; context and the article (los, las) usually show the plural.

Regional

Common in Rioplatense speech, especially before consonants (“ehto” for esto), and across the Caribbean, coastal Latin America, Chile and Andalusia. Mexico City and the Andean highlands tend to keep a full s.

• está, los mismos

  is, the same ones

  Often said “ehtá”, “loh mihmoh”.

Also called prefix

How it works

A prefix changes the meaning of a word but not its word class: hacer and deshacer are both verbs. Common Spanish prefixes include des- and in- (negation), re- (again or very), pre- (before), sub- (under) and super- (above or extremely). In- becomes im- before b and p: imposible.

Spanish and English

Many prefixes are shared with English, which makes them easy to recognise. In informal Latin American Spanish, re- also intensifies adjectives and adverbs: re bueno (really good), re lejos.

Regional

Re as an intensifier (re lindo, re cansado) is strongly Rioplatense and informal; it is often written as a separate word.

• Tengo que rehacer el informe.

  I have to redo the report.

• Es imposible llegar a tiempo.

  It’s impossible to get there on time.

Also called suffix · ending

How it works

Suffixes often change the word class: the verb trabajar gives the noun trabajador and the adjective trabajoso. Some suffixes add a shade of meaning instead, such as the diminutive -ito or the augmentative -ón. Verb endings like -amos in hablamos are not suffixes in this sense; grammar calls them desinencias.

Spanish and English

Many Spanish suffixes have close English partners: -ción and -tion, -dad and -ty, -mente and -ly. The gender of a noun often follows its suffix: nouns in -ción and -dad are feminine.

• La organización del evento fue perfecta.

  The organisation of the event was perfect.

• Es muy trabajador.

  He’s very hard-working.

Also called derivation · derivación · word family · familia de palabras

How it works

Derivation lets you guess the meaning of new words from ones you know. From pan come panadero, panadería and empanada; from leer come lector, lectura and releer. Words that share a root make up a word family.

Spanish and English

Recognising derived words is one of the fastest ways to grow a Spanish vocabulary, because the patterns are regular: -ería is often a shop (librería, heladería), and -ero or -era is often the person who works there.

• Compré facturas en la panadería.

  I bought pastries at the bakery.

• La lectura me relaja.

  Reading relaxes me.

Also called compound · composición

How it works

The most productive Spanish pattern is verb plus plural noun, naming a tool or a person: abrelatas (can opener), paraguas (umbrella), lavaplatos. These nouns are masculine and have the same form in singular and plural: el paraguas, los paraguas. Other compounds join two adjectives (agridulce) or a noun and an adjective (pelirrojo).

Spanish and English

English often keeps compound nouns as two words (can opener), while Spanish writes the verb-noun type as one word. Spanish also builds many compounds with de instead: máquina de lavar (washing machine).

• Mañana es mi cumpleaños.

  Tomorrow is my birthday.

• Me olvidé el paraguas.

  I forgot my umbrella.

Also called cognate · palabra transparente

How it works

Spanish and English share thousands of words from Latin, often with regular spelling changes: -tion becomes -ción, -ty becomes -dad, -ous becomes -oso. Cognates are a great shortcut for reading, but their pronunciation and stress follow Spanish rules: hospital is stressed on the last syllable.

Spanish and English

Not every look-alike is a true cognate. Check the ones that matter, because a false friend can change the meaning completely.

• Es una situación muy común.

  It’s a very common situation.

• La universidad está cerca.

  The university is nearby.

Also called false cognate · falso cognado

How it works

False friends come from shared roots whose meanings drifted apart, or from pure coincidence. Common ones are actualmente (currently, not actually), realizar (to carry out, not to realise), librería (bookshop, not library), éxito (success, not exit) and constipado (having a cold in many places, not constipated).

Spanish and English

When you want the English meaning, the Spanish word is usually different: actually is en realidad, to realise is darse cuenta, library is biblioteca.

• Actualmente trabajo en una startup.

  I currently work at a startup.

• Me di cuenta tarde.

  I realised too late.

  Not realicé, which means I carried out.

Also called synonym

How it works

Perfect synonyms are rare; most pairs differ in register, region or the words they combine with. Empezar is everyday and comenzar a little more formal; auto, carro and coche all mean car but belong to different countries.

Spanish and English

A dictionary synonym is not always safe to swap in. Check which one people actually use in your region and situation.

Regional

In Argentina the car is el auto; carro is common in much of Latin America; coche is mainly used in Spain and Mexico.

• La clase empieza a las diez.

  The class starts at ten.

• La ceremonia comienza a las diez.

  The ceremony begins at ten.

Also called antonym · opposite · contrario

How it works

Some antonyms are separate words (subir, bajar), and many are formed with a prefix (posible, imposible; hacer, deshacer). Learning words in opposite pairs is an efficient way to remember both.

• Este es caro y ese es barato.

  This one is expensive and that one is cheap.

• Es imposible.

  It’s impossible.

Also called collocation · word partnership

How it works

A collocation is not a fixed idiom: each word keeps its meaning, but native speakers choose one partner out of several possible ones. You tomar una decisión, hacer una pregunta and prestar atención, even though make, do and pay would translate differently.

Spanish and English

Translating English collocations word for word is a common source of unnatural Spanish: to make a decision is tomar una decisión, not hacer una decisión, and to pay attention is prestar atención, not pagar atención.

• Tengo que tomar una decisión.

  I have to make a decision.

• ¿Te puedo hacer una pregunta?

  Can I ask you a question?

Also called idiom · expresión idiomática · idiomatic expression

How it works

Idioms have to be learned as whole units: estar en las nubes means to be daydreaming, and costar un ojo de la cara means to cost a fortune. Their words usually cannot be changed or reordered, though the verb is conjugated as normal.

Spanish and English

Idioms are often regional, and an English idiom translated literally usually means nothing in Spanish. Explain the meaning plainly when you don’t know the local equivalent.

Regional

Many idioms are local. Estar al horno (to be in serious trouble) is typically Rioplatense; other countries have their own versions.

• Me estás tomando el pelo.

  You’re pulling my leg.

• Ese departamento cuesta un ojo de la cara.

  That apartment costs a fortune.

Also called chunk · lexical chunk · set phrase · fórmula · expresión fija

How it works

Fixed phrases, often called chunks in language teaching, are stored and produced as a single unit. They can contain grammar you have not studied yet, such as the subjunctive in que te vaya bien, but you can use them correctly long before you could build them yourself.

Spanish and English

Treat a chunk as vocabulary, not as a rule to generalise. Knowing que te vaya bien does not mean you need to master the subjunctive to say it.

• Que te vaya bien.

  Take care. / All the best.

• Llevo paraguas por si acaso.

  I’m taking an umbrella just in case.

Also called register · formal · informal · colloquial · coloquial · formality

How it works

The same idea can be said in different registers depending on the situation and the relationship: an email to a client, a chat with a friend, a speech. Register shows up in pronouns (usted or vos), in vocabulary (dinero or plata) and in grammar (the future tense or ir a).

Spanish and English

English marks formality mostly through vocabulary. Spanish also marks it through the choice of you, so switching from usted to vos is itself a change of register.

Regional

In Argentina and Uruguay vos is normal in everyday speech with almost everyone, while usted is kept for formal situations or to show distance. The balance differs across Latin America.

• ¿Tenés plata?

  Have you got any money?

  Informal. With tú: ¿Tienes plata?

• ¿Dispone usted del dinero?

  Do you have the money available?

  Formal.

Also called slang · argot · jargon

How it works

Jerga covers both slang, the informal vocabulary of a group, and jargon, the technical vocabulary of a profession. Slang changes fast and is often local, so a word that is normal among friends in Buenos Aires may be unknown in Mexico.

Spanish and English

Slang signals closeness. Use it with friends and in casual settings, not in a job interview or a formal email.

Regional

Rioplatense slang draws heavily on lunfardo: laburo, bondi (bus), mina (woman, informal), guita (money).

• Mañana tengo mucho laburo.

  I’ve got a lot of work tomorrow.

• La fiesta estuvo re copada.

  The party was really cool.

Also called Rioplatense slang · argentine slang

How it works

Lunfardo grew in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries among immigrant and working-class communities, especially Italian ones, and spread through tango lyrics. Many of its words are now ordinary informal Spanish in Argentina and Uruguay: laburo, pibe, mina, morfar, guita, bondi. It also includes vesre, which reverses syllables: café becomes feca.

Spanish and English

Lunfardo is vocabulary, not grammar: the sentence around it is standard Spanish. Some words are fine in any casual conversation (laburo, pibe), while others are coarse, so learn them from context.

Regional

Lunfardo is specific to the Río de la Plata region; outside it, many of these words will not be understood.

• El pibe se tomó el bondi.

  The kid took the bus.

• ¿Vamos a morfar?

  Shall we go and eat?

Also called regional word · argentinismo · americanismo · dialectal

How it works

Spanish is spoken in over twenty countries, and each has its own everyday words. Strawberry is frutilla in Argentina, Uruguay and Chile, and fresa elsewhere; avocado is palta in the Southern Cone and aguacate further north. Regionalisms are part of the standard language of their region, not errors.

Spanish and English

For a broadly understood choice, pick the word your listeners use; when in doubt, add the other word or describe it.

Regional

Some Rioplatense words and their common alternatives: frutilla (fresa), palta (aguacate), remera (camiseta), pileta (piscina, alberca).

• Compré frutillas en la verdulería.

  I bought strawberries at the greengrocer’s.

• ¿Le ponés palta a la ensalada?

  Do you put avocado in the salad?

  With tú: ¿Le pones palta a la ensalada?

Also called loanword · borrowing · anglicismo · anglicism · extranjerismo

How it works

Spanish has borrowed from Arabic (almohada, ojalá), indigenous American languages (chocolate, papa), Italian, French and, recently, English. Some loanwords keep their original spelling (wifi, show); others are adapted to Spanish spelling and sound (fútbol, estrés, chequear). Borrowings from English are called anglicismos.

Spanish and English

Anglicisms are common in tech and business talk, but their pronunciation follows Spanish sounds, and some have a Spanish alternative that is preferred in careful writing: correo electrónico for email, reunión for meeting.

Regional

Rioplatense Spanish has many Italian loanwords through immigration, such as chau (goodbye) and birra (beer, informal).

• ¿Cuál es la clave del wifi?

  What’s the wifi password?

• Mañana juego al fútbol.

  Tomorrow I’m playing football.

Also called abbrev · abbreviation · sigla · acronym · acrónimo

How it works

An abbreviation (abreviatura) is a written shortcut that is read as the full word: Sr. is read señor, and it usually ends with a full stop. An initialism (sigla) is built from initials and is read as letters or as a word: ONU, DNI. Plurals of abbreviations are often shown by doubling letters: EE. UU. for Estados Unidos.

Spanish and English

Siglas do not take an s in the plural in writing: las ONG, not las ONGs. Many differ from their English counterparts because the words are in a different order: OTAN (NATO), ONU (UN), OMS (WHO).

• La Sra. López llega a las diez.

  Mrs López arrives at ten.

• Traé el DNI.

  Bring your ID card.

  With tú: Trae el DNI. DNI is used in Argentina and Spain.

Also called ser vs estar · to be · ser or estar

How it works

Ser identifies and classifies: who or what something is, origin, profession, material, time and where an event takes place. Estar places and describes a state: where a person or thing is, how it is right now, and the result of a change. Many adjectives take either verb with a different meaning: es aburrido (he’s boring) against está aburrido (he’s bored).

Spanish and English

“Permanent against temporary” is only a rough guide: está muerto uses estar and es joven uses ser. Location is estar for things (el libro está en la mesa) but ser for events (la fiesta es en mi casa).

• Mi amiga es de Chile, pero está en Buenos Aires.

  My friend is from Chile, but she’s in Buenos Aires.

• La sopa está rica.

  The soup tastes good.

  Estar with an adjective often describes how something seems right now.

Also called haber vs tener · hay · there is · to have

How it works

Haber has two jobs: the auxiliary of compound tenses (he comido) and the impersonal hay, había, hubo for existence (hay un problema). Tener expresses possession, age and physical states (tengo hambre, tengo treinta años), and obligation with que (tengo que irme).

Spanish and English

English “have” covers both, which leads to tengo comido or tiene un problema for “there is a problem”. Use hay for what exists, and keep it singular even with plural nouns: hay muchas personas.

• Hay dos cafés en la esquina.

  There are two cafés on the corner.

• He vivido acá tres años y tengo muchos amigos.

  I’ve lived here for three years and I have a lot of friends.

Also called por vs para · for · by · through

How it works

Para points to a destination, purpose, recipient or deadline: para vos, para aprender, para el lunes. Por points to a cause, the path or means, an exchange, a duration or an approximate place: por el calor, por la ventana, por diez pesos, por la mañana. In passives, por introduces the doer.

Spanish and English

One English word, two Spanish ones. Ask whether you mean “in order to / intended for” (para) or “because of / through / in exchange for” (por). Gracias por is fixed: “thanks for” always takes por.

• Estudio español para hablar con mis amigos.

  I study Spanish to talk to my friends.

• Gracias por la ayuda. Te llamo por teléfono.

  Thanks for the help. I’ll call you on the phone.

Also called preterite vs imperfect · pretérito vs imperfecto · past tenses · indefinido

How it works

The pretérito moves a story forward: fui, llegó, se rompió. The imperfecto sets the scene and describes what was going on or used to happen: era tarde, llovía, siempre íbamos. In one sentence the imperfecto often frames an action that the pretérito drops into it.

Spanish and English

English “was/were”, “used to” and simple past do not map neatly. Ask whether you are reporting an event as a finished whole (pretérito) or describing a situation around it (imperfecto).

Regional

In the Río de la Plata and much of Latin America the pretérito also covers recent events that Spain expresses with the pretérito perfecto: hoy comí temprano rather than hoy he comido temprano.

• Llovía cuando salí de casa.

  It was raining when I left home.

• De chico jugaba al fútbol; ayer jugué después de años.

  As a kid I played football; yesterday I played for the first time in years.

Also called saber vs conocer · to know

How it works

Saber takes information: a fact, a clause with que or a question word, or an infinitive for a skill (sé nadar). Conocer takes a person, place or thing you have met or experienced, with personal a before people: conozco a tu hermana, conozco Rosario. In the preterite, conocí means “I met”.

Spanish and English

English “know” covers both. “Do you know Ana?” is ¿conocés a Ana?; “do you know where Ana lives?” is ¿sabés dónde vive Ana?

• ¿Sabés dónde queda el museo?

  Do you know where the museum is?

  With tú: ¿sabes?

• No conozco Mendoza todavía.

  I haven’t been to Mendoza yet.

Also called pedir vs preguntar · to ask · ask for · ask a question

How it works

Pedir asks someone to give or do something: pedir un café, pedir ayuda, pedirle a alguien que venga, with the subjunctive. Preguntar asks a question: preguntar la hora, preguntar si, preguntar por alguien (ask after someone). Both take the person as an indirect object: le pedí, le pregunté.

Spanish and English

English uses “ask” for both, and “ask for” is not preguntar por: “ask for the bill” is pedir la cuenta, while preguntar por Ana is “ask about Ana”.

• Le pedí la cuenta al mozo.

  I asked the waiter for the bill.

  Mozo is the usual Rioplatense word for waiter; elsewhere mesero or camarero.

• Me preguntó si hablaba inglés.

  She asked me if I spoke English.

Also called ir vs venir · llevar vs traer · come and go · bring and take · llevar · traer

How it works

Venir means moving to where the speaker is, and traer means bringing something there. Ir and llevar mean moving or taking something anywhere else, including to where the listener is. The reference point is the speaker’s place at the moment of speaking.

Spanish and English

English “come” can move toward the listener (“I’m coming”), but Spanish uses ir: ¡Ya voy! Likewise, “I’ll bring it to your house” is te lo llevo, not te lo traigo.

• ¿Venís a mi casa? — Sí, ya voy.

  Are you coming to my place? — Yes, I’m coming.

  With tú: ¿vienes?

• Mañana te llevo el libro.

  I’ll bring you the book tomorrow.

  Llevar, because the book goes to where you are, not where I am.